Busi 3103 Notes

ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY – STUDY LIST – KEY CONCEPTS PART ONE: INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONS CHAPTER ONE – ORGANIZATIONS AND ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY Administrative principles: closed system management perspective that focuses on the total organization and grows from the insight of practitioners – Bureaucratic organizations: organization design based on clearly defined authority and responsibility, formal record keeping and uniform application if standard rules – Change strategy: a plan to guide an organizational change – Chaos Theory: a scientific theory that suggests that relationships in complex, adaptive systems are made up of numerous interconnections that create unintentional effects and render the environment unpredictable – Closed system: autonomous, enclosed and not dependent on the external environment – Contextual dimensions: the characteristics of an organization, including size, technology, environment and goals. – Contingency: the applicable management approach to deal with unforeseen events – Effectiveness: the degree to which an organization achieves its goals – Efficiency: the amount of resources used to produce a unit of output – Hawthorne studies: studies worker productivity.Managers who treat their employees well facilitate increased employee output – Learning organization: everyone is engaged in finding and solving problems enable continuous improvement and capabilities of its own employees – Level of analysis: in systems theory, the subsystem on which the primary focus is placed; four levels of analysis characterize the organization – Meso theory: combines micro and macro levels of analysis – Open System: interacts with the environment for survival – Organization: social entities that are goal directed, deliberately structured and linked to the external environment – OB: micro approach to organizations with focus on indiv iduals in the organization – OT: macro approach to organizations that analyses the whole organization as a unit – Role: allows an employee to use their abilities to achieve outcomes and meet goals – Scientific management: claims decisions about organization and job design should be based on precise, scientific procedures – Stakeholder: any group within or outside an organization that has a stake in the rganizations performance – Stakeholder approach: (constituency approach) stakeholder satisfaction indicates the performance of the organization – Structural dimensions: describes the internal characteristics of an organization – Subsystems: divisions of an organization that perform specific functions for the survival of the organization. Functions include boundary spanning, production, maintenance, adaptation and management – System: set of interacting elements of inputs, transformation and output to the environment – Task : narrowly defined piece of work assigned to a person PART TWO: ORGANIZATIONAL PURPOSE AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN CHAPTER TWO – STRATEGY, ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN, AND EFFECTIVENESS – Analyzer (62) Competing values model: perspective on organizational effectiveness that combines diverse indictors of performance that represent competing management values – Defender: business strategy that seeks stability or retrenchment rather than innovation or growth – Differentiation strategy: used to distinguish an organization’s products or services from others in the industry – Focus strategy: concentrates on a specific regional market or buyer group Goal approach: concerned with output and whether the organization achieves its output goals – Human relations emphasis: competing-values model that incorporates the values of an internal focus and a flexible structure – Internal-process approach: looks at internal activities and assesses effectiveness by indicators of internal health and efficiency – Internal-process emphasis: competing-values model that looks at the values of internal focus and structural control – Low-cost leadership strategy: tries to increase market share by emphasizing low cost compared to competitors – Mission: organization reason for existence – Official Goals: formally stated definitions of business scope and outcomes the organization strives to achieve (also called mission) – Open-systems emphasis: competing-values model that looks at the combination of external focus and flexible structure – Operative goals: explain what the organization is trying to achieve, with focus on the actual operating procedures – Organizational goals: desired state the organization attempts to reach – Prospector: business strategy characterized by innovation, risk aking, seeking new opportunities and growth – Rational-goal emphasis: competing-values model that foc uses on structural control and external focus – Reactor strategy: business strategy in which environmental threats and opportunities are responded to in an ad hoc fashion – Resource-based approach: organizational perspective that assesses effectiveness based on how organizations successfully obtains, integrates and manages valued resources – Strategy: set of plans, decisions and objectives that have been adopted to achieve the organizations goals – Structure: formal reporting relationships, groupings and systems of an organization CHAPTER THREE – FUNDAMENTALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Centralized: level of hierarchy with authority to make decisions – Chain of command: formal line of authority to make decisions Decentralized: decision making and communication that is spread out across the company – Departmental grouping: structure where employees share a common supervisor and resources, are jointly responsible for performance, and te nd to identify and collaborate with each other – Divisional grouping: people are organized according to what the organization produces – Divisional structure: structuring based on individual products, services, product groups, major projects, or profit centers (also called product structure or strategic business units) – Functional grouping: grouping of employees who perform similar functions or work processes or who bring similar knowledge and skills to bear on a task – Functional matrix: structure in which functional bosses have primary authority, and product or project managers simply coordinate product services – Functional structure: grouping of activities by common function – Horizontal grouping: organizing of employees around core work processes rather than by function, product or geography – Horizontal linkage: amount of communication and coordination that occurs horizontally across organizational departments – Horizont al structure: structure that eliminates both the vertical hierarchy and departmental boundaries by organizing teams of employees around the core work processes, the end to end work, information, and material flow that provide value directly to customers – Hybrid structure: combines various structural approaches (functional, divisional, geographical, and horizontal) tailored to specific strategic needs – Integrator: a position or department that is reated to coordinate several departments – Liaison role: person that is responsible to communicating and achieving coordination with another department – Matrix structure: strong form of horizontal linkage in which both product and functional structures (horizontal and vertical) are implemented simultaneously – Multifocused grouping: a structure in which an organization embraces structural grouping alternatives simultaneously – Organizational structure: designates formal reporting relationships, in cluding the number of levels in the hierarchy and the span of control of managers and supervisors; identifies the grouping together of individuals into departments and of departments into the total organization; and includes the design of systems to ensure effective communication, coordination and integration of efforts across departments – Outsourcing: contracting out certain functions, e. g. anufacturing,IT†¦to other organization – Process: organized group of related tasks and activities that work together to transform inputs into outputs that create value for customers – Product matrix: a variation of the matrix structure in which project or product managers have primary authority, and functional managers simply assign technical personnel to projects and provide advisory expertise – Re-engineering: redesigning a vertical organization along its horizontal workflows and processes – Symptoms of structural deficiency: signs of the organization structure being out of alignment, including delayed or poor quality decision making, failure to respond innovatively to environmental changes, and too much conflict – Task force: temporary committee composed of representatives from each department affected by a problem Teams: permanents task forces often used in conjunction with a full time integrator – Vertical information system: periodic reports, written information and computer based communications distributed to managers – Vertical linkages: communication and coordination activities connecting the top and bottom of an organization – Virtual cross-functional teams: teams comprising individuals from different functions who are separated in space and time as well – Virtual network grouping: organization that is loosely connected cluster of separate components – Virtual network structure: the firm subcontracts many or most of its major processes to separate companies and coordinates their a ctivities from a small headquarters or organization – Virtual team: made up of organizationally or geographically dispersed members who are linked through advanced information and communications technologies. Members frequently use the internet and collaborative software to work together, rather than meeting face to face SLIDES ONLY – BCG matrix (10): Consider market share and growth for product portfolios PART THREE: OPEN-SYSTEM DESIGN ELEMENTS CHAPTER FOUR – EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT – Boundary spanning roles: activities that link and coordinate an organization with key elements in the external environment – Boundary scanning roles (Slide only) Buffering roles: activities that absorb uncertainty from the environment – Cooptation: when leaders from important sectors in the environment are made part of an organization – Differentiation: the differences (cognitive and emotional) among managers in various functional departments of an organiz ation and formal structure differences among these departments – Direct interlock: occurs when a member of the board of directors of one company sits on the board of another – Domain: an organizations chosen environmental field of activity – General environment: sectors that may not directly affect the daily operations of a firm but will indirectly influence it – Green environment: natural environment Indirect interlock: occurs when a director of one company and a director of another are both directors of third company – Integration: the quality of collaboration between departments of an organization – Interlocking directorate: formal linkage that occurs when a member of the board of directors of one company sits on the board of another company – Mechanistic: an organization system marked by rules, procedures, a clear hierarchy of authority, and centralized decision making – Organic: free flowing, adaptive processes an unclear hierarchy of authority, and decentralized decision making – Organizational environment: all elements that exist outside the boundary of the organization and have potential to affect all or part of the organization – Resource dependence: a situation in which organization depends on the environment, but strive to acquire control over resources to minimize their dependence – Sectors: subdivisions of the external environment that contain similar elements – Simple-complex dimension: the number and dissimilarity of external elements relevant to an organizations operations – Stable-unstable dimension: the state of an organization’s environmental elements – Task environment: sectors with which the organization interacts directly and that have a direct effect on the organization’s ability to achieve its goals – Uncertainty: occurs when decision makers do not have sufficient information about the environmental factors and have a d ifficult time predicting external changes CHAPTER FIVE – INTERORGANIZATIONAL RELATIONSHIPS Coercive forces: external pressures such as legal requirements exerted on an organization to adopt structures, techniques, or behaviors similar to other organizations – Collaborative networks: an emerging perspective whereby organizations allow themselves to become dependent on other organizations to increase value and productivity for all – Generalist: an organization that offers a broad range of products or services and serves a broad market – Institutional environment: norms and values from stakeholders that organizations try to follow in order to please stakeholders – Institutional perspective: under high uncertainty, organizations imitate others in the same institutional environment – Institutional similarity: common structures, management approaches and behaviors established by organizations in the same field. Interorganizational relationships: r esource transactions, flows and linkages that occur among two or more organizations – Legitimacy: an organizations actions are desirable, proper and appropriate within the environment’s systems of norms, values and beliefs – Mimetic forces: under uncertainty, this is the pressure to copy or model other organizations that appear to be successful in the environment – Niche: domain of unique environmental resources and needs – Normative forces: pressures to adopt structures, techniques or management processes because they are considered by the community to be up to date and effective – Organizational ecosystem: system formed by the interaction of a community of organizations and their environment, usually cutting across traditional industry lines – Organizational form: an organization’s specific technology, structure, products, goals, and personnel – Population: set of organizations engaged in similar activities with simila r resources and utcomes – Population-ecology perspective: the focus is on organizational diversity and adaptation within a community or population or organizations – Retention: The preservation and institutionalization of selected organizational forms – Selection: process by which organizational variations are determined to fit the external environment, variations that fail to fit the needs if the environment are selected out and fail – Specialist: an organization with a narrow range of goods or services or serves a narrow market – Struggle for existence: principle of the population ecology model that states that organizations are engaged in a competitive struggle for resources and fighting to survive – Variation: new organizational forms that respond to the needs of the external environment (mutations in biology) SLIDES ONLY – Agency theory (9-13): The relationship between Shareholders and Managers is dominated by this question, How can the Agent shareholder/owner make sure that the managers are acting in their best interest? – Transaction cost theory (21-25): The inclusion of all costs are considered when  making  a  decision  and not just the  market prices. CHAPTER SIX – DESIGNING ORGANIZATIONS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT Consortia: groups of firms that venture into new products and technologies – Domestic stage: first stage of international development in which a company is domestically orientated while managers are aware of the global environment – Economies of scale: achieving lower costs through large volume production, often made possible by global expansion – Economies of scope: achieving economies by having a presence in many product lines, technologies or geographic areas – Factors of production: supplies necessary for production e. g. raw materials, land, labor – Global companies: no longer thinks of itself as having a home country â⠂¬â€œ Global geographic structure: an organization divides its operation into world regions, each of which reports to the CEO – Global matrix structure: A horizontal linkage in an international organization in which both product and geographical structures are implemented simultaneously to achieve a balance between standardization and globalization. – Global product structure: product divisions take responsibility for global operations in their specific product areas –Global stage: stage in international development in which the company transcends any one country – Global teams: work groups comprising MNC members whose activities span in different countries (transnational teams) – Globalization strategy: standardization of product design and advertising strategy throughout the world – International division: equal in status to other major departments within the company and has its own hierarchy to handle business in various countries  œ International stage: 2nd stage of international development where company takes exports seriously and is multidomestic – Joint venture: separate entity of sharing developments and production costs and penetrating into a new market between two or more firms – Multidomestic: company that responds to local customers and competition in each country independent of other countries – Multidomestic strategy: competition in each country is handled independently of competition in other countries – Multinational stage: stage of international development where a company has marketing and production facilities in many countries and more than one third of its sales outside its home country – Power distance: level of inequality people are willing to accept within an organization – Standardization: all branches of the company at all locations operate in the same way – Transnational model: horizontal organization with multiple centers, subsidiary ma nagers who initiate strategy and innovations for the company as a whole, and unit and coordination achieved through corporate culture and shared vision and values – Uncertainty avoidance: level of tolerance for and comfort within, uncertainty and individualism within a culture SLIDES ONLY – Core competency (5,6) – Diversification (7-11) PART FOUR: INTERNAL DESIGN ELEMENTS CHAPTER SEVEN – MANUFACTURING AND SERVICE TECHNOLOGIES Analyzability: a dimension of technology in which work activities can be reduced to mechanical steps and participants can follow an objective, computational procedure to solve problems – Continuous process production: completely mechanized manufacturing process with no sorting or stopping – Core technology: work process directly related to the organization mission – Craft technology: technology used for stable stream of activities where the conversion process is not well understood or analyzable – Engineer ing technologies: technology used when there is a substantial variety in the tasks performed, but activities are handled on the basis of established formulas, procedures, and techniques – Flexible manufacturing systems: using computers to link manufacturing components e. g. obots, machines, product design and engineering analysis to enable fast switching from one product to another – Intensive technologies: variety of products or services provided in combination to a client – Interdependence: the extent to which departments depend on each other for resources or materials to accomplish their tasks – Job design: the assignment of goals and tasks to be completed my employees – Job enlargement: the designing of jobs to expand the number of different tasks performed by an employee – Job enrichment: the designing of jobs to increase responsibility, recognition and opportunities for growth and achievement – Job rotation: moving employees fro m job to job to give them a greater variety of tasks and alleviate boredom – Job simplification: the reduction of the number and difficulty of tasks performed by a single person – Joint optimization: the goal of the sociotechnical system approach, which states that organization will function best only if its social and technical systems are designed to fit the needs of each other – Large-batch production: manufacturing process with long production runs of standardized parts – Lean manufacturing: uses highly trained employees at every stage of the production process who take painstaking approach to details and continuous problem solving to cut waste and improve quality – Long-linked technology: the combination, within one organization, of successive stages of production, with each stage using as its inputs the production of the preceding stage – Mass customization: the use of computer integrated systems and flexible work processes to enable c ompanies to mass produce a variety of products or services designed to exact customer specification – Meditating technology: the provision of products or services that mediate or link clients from the external environment and allow each department to work independently – Noncore technology: a department work process that is important to the organization but is not directly related to the central mission – Nonroutine technologies: there is high tasks variety and the conversion process is not analyzable or well understood – Pooled interdependence: the lowest form of interdependence among departments in which work does not flow between units – Reciprocal interdependence: the highest level of interdependence in which the output of one operation is the input of the second, and then the output of the second operation is the input of the first. Routine technologies: technology that’s characterized by little task variety and the use of objective, co mputational procedures – Sequential interdependence: serial form of interdependence in which the output of one operation becomes the input of another operation – Service technology: characterized by simultaneous production and consumption, customized output, customer participation, intangible output and being labour intensive – Small-batch production: manufacturing process, often custom work that is not highly mechanized and relies heavily on the human operation – Sociotechnical systems approach: combines the needs of people with the need for technical efficiency – Task variety: the frequency of unexpected and novel events that occur in the conversion process – Technical complexity: the extent of mechanization in the manufacturing process Technology: tools, techniques and actions used to transform organizational inputs into outputs SLIDES ONLY – History of commercial technology (7) – Historical context of technology – Wo odward, Perrow, and Thompson (10-30) CHAPTER NINE – ORGANIZATIONAL SIZE, LIFE CYCLE, AND DECLINE bureaucracy| An organizational framework marked by rules and procedures, specialization and division of labour, hierarchy of authority, technically qualified personnel, separation of position and person, and written communications and records (p. 30)| bureaucratic control| The use of rules, policies, hierarchy of authority, written documentation, standardization, and other bureaucratic mechanisms to standardize behaviour and assess performance (p. 336)| centralization| Level of hierarchy with authority to make decisions (p. 332)| charismatic authority| Based in devotion to the exemplary character or heroism of an individual and the order defined by him or her (p. 337)| clan control| The use of social characteristics, such as culture, shared values, commitments, traditions, and beliefs, to control behaviour (p. 338)| collectivity stage| The life-cycle phase in which an organization has strong leadership and begins to develop clear goals and direction (p. 24)| downsizing| Intentionally reducing the size of a company’s workforce by laying off employees (p. 343)| elaboration stage| The organizational life-cycle phase in which the red-tape crisis is resolved through the development of a new sense of teamwork and collaboration (p. 326)| entrepreneurial stage| The life-cycle phase in which an organization is born and its emphasis is on creating a product and surviving in the marketplace (p. 324)| Formalization| The degree to which an organization has rules, procedures, and written documentation (p. 332)| formalization stage| The phase in an organization’s life cycle involving the installation and use of rules, procedures, and control systems (p. 26)| incident command sytem| Developed to maintain the efficiency and control benefits of bureaucracy yet prevent the problems of slow response to crises (p. 334)| life cycle| A perspective on organizational g rowth and change that suggests that organizations are born, grow older, and eventually die (p. 323)| market control| A situation that occurs when price competition is used to evaluate the output and productivity of an organization (p. 337)| organizational decline| A condition in which a substantial, absolute decrease in an organization’s resource base occurs over a period of time (p. 340)| personnel ratios| The proportions of administrative, clerical, and professional support staff (p. 32)| rational-legal authority| Based on employees’ belief in the legality of rules and the right of those in authority to issue commands (p. 337)| self-control| A person’s values are brought into line with the organization’s values to control behaviour (p. 339)| traditional authority| Based in the belief in traditions and the legitimacy of the status of people exercising authority through those traditions| SLIDES ONLY – Organizational birth and early life (4,5) †“ Nandy’s Model (6-9) – Genier’s Model (10, 11,18,19) PART FIVE: MANAGING DYNAMIC PROCESSES CHAPTER TEN – ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ETHICAL VALUES adaptability culture| A culture characterized by strategic focus on the external environment through flexibility and change to meet customer needs (p. 60)| bureaucratic culture| A culture that has an internal focus and a consistency orientation for a stable environment (p. 363)| chief ethics officer| High-level executive who oversees all aspects of ethics, including establishing and broadly communicating ethical standards, setting up ethics training programs, supervising the investigation of ethical problems, and advising managers in the ethical aspects of decisions (p. 379)| clan culture| A culture that focuses primarily on the involvement and participation of the organization’s members and on rapidly changing expectations from the external environment (p. 362)| code of ethics| A formal statement of the company’s values concerning ethics and social responsibility (p. 80)| culture| The set of values, guiding beliefs, understandings, and ways of thinking that are shared by members of an organization and are taught to new members as correct (p. 356)| culture strength| The degree of agreement among members of an organization about the importance of specific values (p. 364)| ethical dilemma| When each alternative choice or behaviour seems undesirable because of a potentially negative ethical consequence (p. 372)| ethics| The code of moral principles and values that governs the behaviour of a person or group with respect to what is right or wrong (p. 369)| ethics committee| A group of executives appointed to oversee company ethics (p. 378)| ethics hotline| A telephone number that employees can call to seek guidance and to report questionable behaviour (p. 79)| external adaptation| The manner in which an organization meets goals and deals with outsiders (p. 357)| heroes| Organi zational members who serve as models or ideals for serving cultural norms and values (p. 359)| internal integration| A state in which organization members develop a collective identity and know how to work together effectively (p. 357)| language| Slogans, sayings, metaphors, or other expressions that convey a special meaning to employees (p. 359)| legends| Stories of events based in history that may have been embellished with fictional details (p. 359)| managerial ethics| Principles that guide the decisions and behaviours of managers with regard to whether they are morally right or wrong (p. 72)| mission culture| A culture that places emphasis on a clear vision of the organization’s purpose and on the achievement of specific goals (p. 361)| myths| Stories that are consistent with the values and beliefs of the organization but are not supported by facts (p. 359)| rites and ceremonies| The elaborate, planned activities that make up a special event and often are conducted for th e benefit of an audience (p. 357)| rule of law| That which arises from a set of codified principles and regulations that describe how people are required to act, are generally accepted in society, and are enforceable in the courts (p. 371)| social audit| Measures and reports the ethical, social, and environmental impact of an organization’s operations (p. 83)| social capital| The quality of interactions among people, affected by whether they share a common perspective (p. 355)| social responsibility| Management’s obligation to make choices and take action so that the organization contributes to the welfare and interest of society as well as itself (p. 372)| stories| Narratives based on true events that are frequently shared among organizational employees and told to new employees to inform them about an organization (p. 359)| subcultures| Cultures that develop within an organization to reflect the common problems, goals, and experiences that members of a team, departme nt, or other unit share (p. 365)| symbol| Something that represents another thing (p. 59)| values-based leadership| A relationship between a leader and followers that is based on strongly shared values that are advocated and acted upon by the leader (p. 377)| whistle-blowing| Employee disclosure of illegal, immoral, or illegitimate practices on the part of the organization’s officers and employees| SLIDES ONLY – Deal and Kennedy – Popular Typology of Organizational Culture (12,13) – Utilitarian ethics model (27) – Moral rights ethics model (28) – Justice ethics model (29) – Forces acting on manager’s ethics moment (30) CHAPTER ELEVEN – INNOVATION AND CHANGE ambidextrous approach| A characteristic of an organization that can behave in both an organic and a mechanistic way (p. 402)| change process| The way in which planned changes occur in an organization (p. 99)| creative departments| Organizational departments that initi ate change, such as research and development, engineering, design, and systems analysis (p. 403)| creativity| The generation of novel ideas that may meet perceived needs or respond to opportunities (p. 399)| culture changes| Changes in the values, attitudes, expectations, beliefs, abilities, and behaviour of employees (p. 397)| dual-core approach| An organizational change perspective that identifies the unique processes associated with administrative change compared to those associated with technical change (p. 411)| horizontal coordination model| A model of the three components of organizational design needed to achieve new product innovation: departmental specialization, boundary spanning, and horizontal linkages (p. 07)| idea champions| Organizational members who provide the time and energy to make things happen; sometimes called advocates, intrapreneurs, and change agents (p. 404)| idea incubator| Safe harbour where ideas from employees throughout the organization can be develop ed without interference from bureaucracy or politics (p. 403)| incremental change| A series of continual progressions that maintains an organization’s general equilibrium and often affects only one organizational part (p. 394)| large group intervention| An approach that brings together participants from all parts of the organization (and may include outside stakeholders as well) to discuss problems or opportunities and plan for change (p. 15)| management champion| A manager who acts as a supporter and sponsor of a technical champion to shield and promote an idea within the organization (p. 405)| new-venture fund| A fund that provides financial resources to employees to develop new ideas, products, or businesses (p. 404)| organization development| A behavioural science field devoted to improving performance through trust, open confrontation of problems, employee empowerment and participation, the design of meaningful work, cooperation between groups, and the full use of human potential (p. 415)| organizational change| The adoption of a new idea or behaviour by an organization (p. 98)| organizational innovation| The adoption of an idea or behaviour that is new to an organization’s industry, market, or general environment (p. 398)| product and service changes| Changes in an organization’s product or service outputs (p. 396)| radical change| A breaking of the frame of reference for an organization, often creating a new equilibrium because the entire organization is transformed (p. 394)| skunkworks| Separate, small, informal, highly autonomous, and often secretive group that focuses on breakthrough ideas for the business (p. 404)| strategy and structure changes| Changes in the administrative domain of an organization, including structure, policies, reward systems, labour relations, coordination devices, anagement information control systems, and accounting and budgeting (p. 396)| switching structures| An organization creates an organic structur e when such a structure is needed for the initiation of new ideas (p. 403)| team building| Activities that promote the idea that people who work together can work together as a team (p. 416)| technical champion| A person who generates or adopts and develops an idea for a technological innovation and is devoted to it, even to the extent of risking position or prestige; also called product champion (p. 405)| technology changes| Changes in an organization’s production process, including its knowledge and skills base, that enable distinctive competence (p. 97)| time-based competition| Delivering products and services faster than competitors, giving companies a competitive edge (p. 409)| venture teams| A technique to foster creativity within organizations in which a small team is set up as its own company to pursue innovations  | SLIDES ONLY – Four P’s (10) – Leavitt’s diamond (11) – Triggers for change (12) – Forces against change (13) – Lewin’s three step change management (14) – Change management five action steps (15-24) CHAPTER TWLEVE – DECISION MAKING PROCESSES bounded rationality perspective| How decisions are made when time is limited, a large number of internal and external factors affect a decision, and the problem is ill-defined (p. 34)| Carnegie model| Organizational decision making involving many managers and a final choice based on a coalition among those managers (p. 445)| coalition| An alliance among several managers who agree through bargaining about organizational goals and problem priorities (p. 445)| contingency decision-making framework| A perspective that brings together the two organizational dimensions of problem consensus and technical knowledge about solutions (p. 458)| decision learning| A process of recognizing and admitting mistakes that allows managers and organizations to acquire the experience and knowledge to perform more effectively in the future (p. 62) | escalating commitment| Persisting in a course of action when it is failing; occurs because managers block or distort negative information and because consistency and persistence are valued in contemporary society (p. 463)| garbage can model| Model that describes the pattern or flow of multiple decisions within an organization (p. 453)| high-velocity environments| Industries in which competitive and technological change is so extreme that market data are either unavailable or obsolete, strategic windows open and shut quickly, and the cost of a decision error is company failure (p. 461)| imitation| The adoption of a decision tried elsewhere in the hope that it will work in the present situation (p. 60)| incremental decision process model| A model that describes the structured sequence of activities undertaken from the discovery of a problem to its solution (p. 447)| inspiration| An innovative, creative solution that is not reached by logical means (p. 460)| intuitive decision making | The use of experience and judgment, rather than sequential logic or explicit reasoning, to solve a problem (p. 439)| management science approach| Organizational decision making that is the analog to the rational approach by individual managers (p. 443)| nonprogrammed decisions| Novel and poorly defined, these are made when no procedure exists for solving the problem (p. 433)| organizational decision making| The organizational process of identifying and solving problems (p. 33)| organized anarchy| Extremely organic organizations characterized by highly uncertain conditions (p. 453)| point–counterpoint| A decision-making technique that divides decision makers into two groups and assigns them different, often competing, responsibilities (p. 462)| problem consensus| The agreement among managers about the nature of problems or opportunities and about which goals and outcomes to pursue (p. 457)| problem identification| The decision-making stage in which information about environm ental and organizational conditions is monitored to determine if performance is satisfactory and to diagnose the cause of shortcomings (p. 33)| problem solution| The decision-making stage in which alternative courses of action are considered and one alternative is selected and implemented (p. 433)| problemistic search| When managers look around in the immediate environment for a solution to resolve a problem quickly (p. 446)| programmed decisions| Repetitive and well-defined procedures that exist for resolving problems (p. 433)| rational approach| A process of decision making that stresses the need for systematic analysis of a problem followed by choice and implementation in a logical sequence (p. 434)| satisficing| The acceptance by organizations of a satisfactory rather than a maximum level of performance (p. 46)| technical knowledge| Understanding and agreement about how to solve problems and reach organizational goals (p. 458)| – Organizational Learning: Single and Double -Loop Learning (Slide only) CHAPTER THIRTEEN – CONFLICT, POWER, AND POLITICS authority| A force for achieving desired outcomes that is prescribed by the formal hierarchy and reporting relationships (p. 481)| centrality| A trait of a department whose role is in the primary activity of an organization (p. 488)| collective bargaining| The negotiation of an agreement between management and workers (p. 498)| competition| Rivalry between groups in the pursuit of a common prize (p. 75)| confrontation| A situation in which parties in conflict directly engage one another and try to work out their differences (p. 498)| coping with uncertainty| A source of power for a department that reduces uncertainty for other departments by obtaining prior information, prevention, and absorption (p. 489)| decision premises| Constraining frames of reference and guidelines placed by top managers on decisions made at lower levels (p. 483)| dependency| One aspect of horizontal power: when one department is dependent on another, the latter is in a position of greater power (p. 487)| domains of political activity| Areas in which politics plays a role.Three domains in organizations are structural change, management succession, and resource allocation (p. 491)| financial resources| Control over money is an important source of power within an organization (p. 488)| intergroup conflict| Behaviour that occurs between organizational groups when participants identify with one group and perceive that other groups may block their group’s goal achievements or expectations (p. 475)| labour-management teams| Teams designed to increase worker participation and to provide a cooperative model for addressing union–management issues (p. 498)| negotiation| The bargaining process that often occurs during confrontation and enables the parties to systematically reach a solution (p. 98)| network centrality| Top managers increase their power by locating themselves centrally in an organizatio n and surrounding themselves with loyal subordinates (p. 484)| nonsubstitutability| A trait of a department whose function cannot be performed by other readily available resources (p. 489)| organizational politics| Activities to acquire, develop, and use power and other resources to obtain a preferred outcome when there is uncertainty or disagreement about choices (p. 490)| political model| A definition of an organization as being made up of groups that have separate interests, goals, and values in which power and influence are needed to reach decisions (p. 79)| political tactics for using power| These include building coalitions, expanding networks, controlling decision premises, enhancing legitimacy and expertise, and making a direct appeal (p. 494)| power| The ability of one person or department in an organization to influence others to bring about desired outcomes (p. 480)| power sources| There are five sources of horizontal power in organizations: dependency, financial resource s, centrality, nonsubstitutability, and the ability to cope with uncertainty (p. 487)| rational model| A description of an organization characterized by a rational approach to decision making, extensive and reliable information systems, central power, a norm of optimization, uniform values across groups, little conflict, and an efficiency orientation (p. 79)| sources of intergroup conflict| Factors that generate conflict, including goal incompatibility, differentiation, task interdependence, and limited resources (p. 476)| strategic contingencies| Events and activities inside and outside an organization that are essential for attaining organizational goals (p. 486)| tactics for enhancing collaboration| Techniques such as integration devices, confrontation and negotiation, intergroup consultation, member rotation, and shared mission and superordinate goals that enable groups to overcome differences and work together (p. 497)| tactics for increasing power| These include entering areas of high uncertainty, creating dependencies, providing resources, and satisfying strategic contingencies  |

Marketing Recommendations for Tesco Essay

Tesco, the third largest retailer in the world, underwent a change of leadership in March of 2011. Sir Terry Leahy stepped down after a highly successful 14 year run with the company that saw the retailer reach 30% control of the British market (Anonymous, 2012). However, the last year and a half has seen declining market share and stock prices. Additionally, the long-term growth strategy of penetrating the US and Chinese markets has not gone as well as anticipated (Anonymous, 2012). This fact, combined with the declining British market share and corporate stock price has created a sense of urgency and has brought about the need for Tesco to rethink their current marketing management strategy. When looking at Tesco’s base business model, the majority of their revenues come from the British market. They saw net income of 2.8bn last year (2011), versus 800m when Sir Terry Leahy took over the company in 2002. However, income is expected to drop to 2.6bn in 2012 (Oliver & Armstrong, 2012). This lost market share and drop in revenue is directly attributed to Tesco’s failure to maintain its focus on its core business at home in Great Britain. Instead, the focus of the company was, arguably, too forward focused on global growth in both the US market with its Fresh & Easy stores and the Chinese market (Oliver & Armstrong, 2012). This global growth strategy not only took focus from the British market, it also took valuable capital dollars from the British stores. The myopic view of global growth over existing British business has brought about a need for Tesco to change  its marketing orientation and bring its attention back to its core British business (Finch, 2012). This will be vital to the long-term success of Tesco, as its competitors have been doing everything to capitalize on Tesco’s lapse of attention. Tesco’s idea of becoming a global competitor is not a mistake. It is a great plan, especially with the growth that many companies have experienced with the opening of the Chinese market and the explosive growth of Chinese spending power and lack of growth in the British market. However, Tesco is guilty of being overly aggressive in their desire to become a global player. They have been very successful in diversifying their business endeavors within their home market. They have expanded into soft drinks and banking, very successfully. Their positioning as a global player could be likened to an army attempting to fight a war on three different fronts (Britain, US, and China). They lack the resources to handle such an ambitious endeavor. I was pleased to read that Philip Clark, Tesco’s CEO, finally ended the Fresh & Easy experiment, and is pulling out of the US market. While this may be interpreted as an admission of failure, I think it shows that Tesco is ready to refocus on their core business. I am not the only one to feel this way, as Tesco shares climbed three percent following the announcement (Oliver & Armstrong, 2012). Tesco is still involved in the Chinese market, which has the greatest upside when compared to the US market. This move allows Tesco to focus on a two front fight – attempting to recapture lost British market share while successfully growing share and revenues in the Chinese market by using a well thought out market focused strategy. The withdrawal from the US market should allow Tesco to refocus on the product quality that has been neglected over the past five years. Even though the British market is not growing, Tesco needs to maintain its market dominance and can only do this by investing in its existing product (Oliver & Armstrong, 2012). The departure from the US market means that capital expenditures and operating capital should be diminished, allowing those funds to be reallocated to the British stores. This will help support the refocus on product quality announced by Mr. Clark, with a promise to invest 1 billion pounds to revitalize the British operations. With properly spent  funds, Tesco should be able to recapture lost market share, consequently shoring up its core business. When considering the four factors of marketing (price, product, placement, and promotion) Mr. Clark needs to continue with the differentiation strategy they have employed with Tesco’s forays into soft drinks and banking. Utilizing Britain’s largest distribution chain, Tesco could capitalize on the strategy utilized by the US retailer Wal-Mart, and differentiate their stores by offering a variety of businesses (fast food, optical, banking, hair and nail care) under one roof. These moves, if effective, would also provide additional foot traffic to their core retail operations, further increasing market share, and revenues. Tesco must carefully consider the market mix and pricing decisions needed with a strategy such as this. If properly implemented, they could secure Tesco’s market dominance for years to come. Tesco is the largest retailer in Britain, and the third largest retailer in the world. However, being big does not guarantee success, and being a key player in Britain does not mean that you can be a key player in the rest of the world. Tesco has effectively demonstrated these facts over the past four years while trying to break into the US and Chinese markets while ignoring their core British business. Philip Clark, the CEO of Tesco, has realized that the company does not have enough resources to continue to attempt to penetrate the US and Chinese markets and keep their market share in Britain. Mr. Clark has withdrawn from the US market and is refocusing the company’s marketing orientation back to its core business and China. Tesco is refocusing on its product quality by taking the funds that had been allocated for US expansion and reinvesting in their existing store British product. Mr. Clark should consider further differentiation of their British product by following the highly successful model employed by US retailer Wal-Mart of putting multiple businesses under the same roof. Mr. Clark should also continue to focus on succeeding in the Chinese marketplace, the fastest growing market in the world in 2012. If Tesco is able to recapture lost British market share, and can grow at a profitable rate in China, the company will be well positioned for 2013 and the future. References Anonymous (2012, April 21). Supermarket sweep; Tesco’s travails. The Economist, 403, 33-33. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1008901971?accountid=32521 Finch, J. (2012). Managerial Marketing. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. Oliver, R. & Armstrong, R. (2012). Tesco – trouble at home. FT.Com, Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1239077344?accountid=32521

Benjamin Franklin

The Benjamin Franklin is quintessential American in the American history. The Benjamin Franklin was a great scientist, politician, printer, musician, economist, inventor, and environmentalist. He was a person with many historical stands with him which illustrated his excellence in various field whether it was politics or science or painting or any other field. He was an intuitive and sensitive person with many qualities. He was one of the persons who were known as the founders of America. He had a diverse area of interests and thus was having diverse qualities.He was a political leader, but at the same time he was a scientist also. This shows his quality of grasping and using his skills. The life span of Benjamin Franklin started in 1706 and lasted up to 1790. This was remarkable as the age above 80 was very rare in the in 17th century. He was the core person in the American Revolution who utilized his qualities to evolve as the politician in the American history. He used his scienti fic, diplomatic, industrial, philosophical ways to contribute to American Revolution.He conveyed his knowledge throughout the America for the building and construction of the America of his beliefs. Benjamin Franklin was born in Boston, Massachusetts on 17th January, 1706. (Benjamin Franklin 1) His father Josiah Franklin was a wax maker. His mother’s name was Abiah Folger. The Benjamin Franklin was the youngest son among the 17 children from his father. He was 15th in his brothers and sisters. Initially his father earned his money from selling soap and candles. He was very naughty boy in his childhood. But his father did not earn well.His father as was not a rich person could not send him to school, so the Benjamin Franklin did his studies through voracious studies. Thus the Benjamin Franklin was not having enough education in his childhood as his father was a poor person. He was a person with very hard will and thus he evolved himself from the core. The Benjamin Franklin sta rted working with his father and sold soap and wax. He was an intelligent and practical person without relying on the theories. After this, he started working with his brother for five year in printing press.During these five years he had access to many books which he had borrowed from his partner sellers. Thus he started his education actually from these books related to various fields. Thus he gained his control over many fields and which he utilized further in his life. The elder brother of Benjamin Franklin started a news paper, The New England Courant where Benjamin started working and used his skills and became the apprentice. He wanted to write for his news paper, but his elder brother was against his writing in news paper.He moved to Philadelphia from Boston and worked as a printer. The elder brother of Franklin did not allow him to write for the newspaper, so he wrote some articles with a pseudo name even. He was a man with great deed. The Benjamin Franklin started working as a clerk in Denham’s merchant business. He founded a library with his friends for studying the books as the books were rare and expensive to purchase. This showed that he was very fond of reading and studying.In 1728, after the death of Deham, Franklin established a printing partnership with Hugh Meredith. In 1732, Franklin started the newspaper Philadelphische Zeitung. Up to 1734 he was a prominent person in Pennsylvania and for the first time he published the first book, reprinting of James Anderson’s The Constitution of the Free Masons. He wanted to became a high quality writer which would be renowned for his works. He spent his many years in England and made known his famous Poor Richard’s Almanac and the Pennsylvania.In his these books he used his writing skills and cited many proverbs which got famous from that time. These proverbs are used today also. He formed a public lending library and fire department in America. He was against many political steps like Iron Act in 1750, the Albany Plan of Union in 1754, but favored the stand for paper money as currency. He was acknowledged as a national hero in America at that time when he went forward to oppose the parliament to put down the Stamp Act.He also became a minister and went to Paris where he was respected comprehensively by the French people. Later in his life he became the Postmaster General and was the President of the Supreme Executive Council. He made great efforts to contribute in the American Revolution. The Benjamin Franklin was a writer also through out his life. His famous works were Poor Richard’s Almanac. This book comprised of many proverbs like â€Å"a penny saved is two pence dear†, â€Å"Fish and visitors sink in three days†.These were some of the famous proverbs from his book. These famous proverbs showed his high level of his writing. Franklin was a scientist and an inventor also in his life. He was assumed to be a magnificent person in field of science in 17th century. His famous experiment of flying kite showed his deep interest in field of electricity. He showed the concept and theory for positive and negative charges. He was the first person who showed the conservation of charges. This later became a theory.He invented Franklin stove, Catheter, Swim fins, Glass Harmonica, and bifocals. He founded the American Philosophical Society in 1743. He had a deep interest in philosophy. He was also elected as the first President of the American Philosophical Society. He started his experiments in this society about the electricity. He got retired from the printing press in 1748. In 1759 he gave his suggestion for experiment of electricity in lightening. Due to his renowned work he was elected as the first American for Royal Society’s Copley Medal.In his political career he became a councilman in 1748 in Philadelphia and in 1751 he was elected as the Justice of Peace in Philadelphia. He was appointed as the deputy postm aster general in 1953. He was elected as chief of a delegation to Albany Congress. He was sent to England to protest against Penn family in 1757. In 1763 when Franklin returned back to Pennsylvania, where he saw some war was there known as the Pontiac’s Rebellion. There were attacks on his character during this period and so he lost his assembly election in 1764.In 1764 when he reached England, King George III sent him back to Pennsylvania as the agent for the colony. He also became agent of Georgia, New Jersey and Massachusetts colonies also. He opposed the Stamp Act in London and later Townshend Acts of 1767 ends his wishes for working for English Government. He was a man with zeal and passion to work and to oppose also. So when he watched the disgusting acts of the English Government, he opposed them severely. This showed his character for freedom against the oppression.The Franklin came back to Philadelphia where the American Revolution had started. The Pennsylvania Assem bly had selected the Benjamin Franklin as delegate for the Second Continental Congress. He was a member of committee which drafted the Declaration of Independence of America in 1776. The Franklin devoted himself as a leader in the American Revolution for the independence of his nation. He coordinated with great Thomas Jefferson and made many changes in the drafts proposed by the Thomas Jefferson.He was an Ambassador to France from 1776 and became the commissioner for the United States. He lived in the France up to 1785. He was very famous personalities in France as many people buy his paintings. He, when, returned to the America back then he received an honor as he was placed just below the George Washington. He became an abolitionist in America after 1785. He worked in many fields for welfare of the people also. He donated 200 Pound for the development of Franklin Collage. He also finished his autobiography during this period of 1771 to 1788.His political career went to the peak wh en he was elected as the President of the Pennsylvania in 1785. He was the President for just three years. Thus this was the end of his political career. He worked as the President to work for the people and for the welfare of the country. He thus was very famous and respected among the people. When he was President, the people felt relaxation and were content. He, during his office duration worked with many great people or politician like Thomas Jefferson, George Washington etc.Many famous writers like Thomas Paine wrote about him and admired him for his qualities. The Benjamin Franklin was a most important character in the history of America whether it was related to science or politics or development also. The Benjamin Franklin through out his life work for the America and just remained a part of American politics up to his death. His death was termed as great loss to politics in America. He advocated the republicanism of his country in his life. He advocated this concept widely. He thought that his country when became a republic could remain when the people would attentive for their social rights and their duties. He also explained this concept in famous book Poor Richard’s Almanac. The person with a deed and character was known as Benjamin Franklin. He worked in the American Revolution for the freedom of the America from colonialism of England. He fought against the English Empire although he had worked for them. But he had a great love for his country.He had worked as the politician through out his life and became the President of Pennsylvania for the benefit and safety of his state. He was a very wise man and had rebellion character also. He strongly opposed the English Government for Stamp Act and Townshend Act in England. He worked in many committees as the delegates to explore the new political ideas. Even he was in the committee known as Committee of Five for drafting the Declaration of Independence which was comprised of Thomas Jefferson.He w as also rewarded as the second person to George Washington in his time which was a great political honor. This honor was given to him as he was hero in American Revolution. There were many myths prevailed about Benjamin Franklin as he was a great character. Some of them were true and some of them never had been proved by the people. One of the myths was that the Benjamin Franklin was a womanizer when he was residing in France as the Ambassador from America.He had thirteen children which were not legal. It was a myth that he had an illegal relation with a French woman. But it was termed to be a fake as no historian or any other captured any note about this relation. Although he had many woman friends associated with him like Catherine Shipley which was only eleven year old when she came in contact with Benjamin Franklin. He was very lovable character in women. But there were no proof that he had gone with any illegal relations with these women.But he had academic, brave and scholar r elations with them. The Benjamin Franklin was wise men who devoted his time and indulged himself completely to make a new and constructive America. There were many myths encountered through out his life which were accepted in the history. He was venerated for his beliefs which had grown to a myth. He called a three days of prayer session during recess in July, 1787 and clergyman for the prayers for daily meeting in the constitutional convention.It was also stated that the after these sessions of prayer gathering, the constitution was written very speedily. This myth was true as there were many records about this myth. There was also myth related with the Benjamin Franklin that he discovered electricity when he was flying the kite and his kite got struck by the lightening. But real fact is that when Benjamin Franklin was flying a kite, his main goal was to prove the electrical nature of lightening. Hi kite just picked up the stray charges which cause the phenomenon of stray capacitan ce.If his kite got struck with the lightening, he might be killed at that instant. He discovered the nature of charge in the lightening and thus discovered the electricity. He was the first person who showed high interest and make use of his high quality knowledge for this experiment. Thus this belief that the Benjamin Franklin had discovered the electricity was true. There were many myths about the acceptance of symbol of America at the time of Benjamin Franklin.Many people wanted eagle to be the symbol, but the bald eagle was accepted as national symbol of America. These myths were also related with the Benjamin Franklin. He was not agreed upon the bald eagle to be a symbol of a nation. It did not seem good for having bald eagle as the symbol of a nation as according to the Benjamin Franklin. But in his letter to his daughter Sally on January 26, 1784(The Eagle, Ben Franklin, and the Turkey 1), he putted his doubt on using the Bald Eagle as the symbol for America.The statement poi nted to the Benjamin Franklin â€Å"a penny saved is a penny earned† represents a myth which was broken later in the history. He wanted to utilize the money through the savings. Thus he was incorporated with the foundation of habit of saving. He was closely associated with saving the money and thought that saving money is the best method of earning. But this myth was broken as the due to modernization of the society today. There are certain myths and stories behind the Benjamin Franklin which were not true.These myths were held across the nation was due to the lack of information medium in America at that time. The medium of information was the major factor which was lagging extensively. This myths stands throughout the history because the information which was given by one person when had reached the last person, had changed due to replacement from different persons. Sometimes it might happen that, when an historian or writer had written some myths about the Benjamin Frankli n, they got reached other person.Thus these myths reached from one person to other. The major reason for the spread out of these myths was gossiping. These gossiping were the main reason for these myths. The Thomas Jefferson was very inspired with Benjamin Franklin and wrote â€Å"I have seen, with extreme indignation, the blasphemies lately vended against the memory of the father of American philosophy. But his memory will be preserved and venerated as long as the thunder of heaven shall be heard or feared. † (The Real Benjamin Franklin, pages 232-233).Instead of all the myths and stories which proclaimed about the Benjamin Franklin, he was renowned as the great and legendry personality of American history. He was one of the founding fathers of America. He had done widely for America and American Revolution with his full efforts. Work-Cited: 1) Benjamin Franklin, From Wikipedia the free encyclopedia. http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin 2) Thomas Jefferson, The R eal Benjamin, Page 232-233. 3) The Eagle, Ben Franklin, and the Turkey. http://www. greatseal. com/symbols/turkey. html

Strategy management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words - 1

Strategy management - Essay Example According to the author innovation is a discipline that can be learned and practices through different levels and strategic movement of an organisation. Drucker (2014), has evaluated that entrepreneurial strategies are the practices and policies of organisations to establish as well as re-establish the fundamental relationship with the external organisational environment. The author has illustrated that innovation in entrepreneurial strategies assist organisation to adopt changing economic characteristics of market, product, process and industry. It also enables entrepreneurs to search and occupy specialized as well as ecological niche (Drucker, 2014). Druker (2014), has evaluated the importance of innovation in the entrepreneurial approach towards the formulation and implementation of organisational strategies. The analysis of the role of innovation and entrepreneurial approach in the organisational strategies has illustrated various important attributes which as aimed to lower down the barriers towards changes that often discouraged by top management. The author has explained that innovation and entrepreneurial approach has allowed organisations to reform their strategies to secure the leadership position by introducing new products, processes and services. This approach influences the organisations to become more risk-averse while offering greater rewards upon success. The innovative approaches of the business strategy of Blackberry can serve as an important example in this context (Drucker, 2014). Their undeniably captivating and irresistible mobile e-mail facility innovation has assisted the marketers to gain a rapid popularity within global market. Their market strategy to become first-to-market has neutralized the effects of their premium pricing strategy. Hence, the incorporation of innovation and entrepreneurial approach has assisted the organisation to secure leadership position in the market. Alternatively,

The Evolutionary Changes in Construction Between the De Havilland Essay

The Evolutionary Changes in Construction Between the De Havilland Comet and the Airbus A380 Aircraft - Essay Example In addition, the jetliner also had a large square window and a pressurized fuselage. Regarding the era, the Comets provided a comfortable passenger cabin. It made its first commercial debut in 1952 where it flew without any problem. Its successful debut as a commercial jet helped drew passengers from all parts of the country with an interest in using the Comets as their preferred choice of flight. However, the success stories of the Comets did not last long since the airplane began experiencing problems just a year after its commercial service debut. In fact, three of the Comets broke up while, on flight resulting in an accident, that received wide publication by the media, according to Montagu-Pollock (2012). Investigations that followed showed that the accidents occurred due to catastrophic metal fatigue that the manufacturing engineers did not understand property at the time of its manufacturing. This prompted the withdrawal of the Comet from service after which it was taken for e xtensive testing to unearth the real cause of the accident. Investigations showed that the accident had initially been wrongly blamed on poor weather. Instead, design flaws were identified, which included dangerous installation methodology, and dangerous stresses at the corners of the windows. As a result, the Comet was modified with oval windows and structural reinforcements among many other changes, notes Nolan (2010). The other rival manufacturers of aircrafts learnt from the Comet and began making improvements in their while manufacturing processes avoid the mistakes made during the manufacture of the first Comet. Overview of the construction design of the Comet The first De Havilland Comet was made entirely of metal low-wing cantilever monoplane, observed Montagu-Pollock (2012). They had four engines, two of which were mounted below the wings for powering the plane. The two engines were buried under the wings to prevent the drag of podded engines, as well as to give room for sm aller fin and rudder. The mounting of the engines higher in the wings was also meant to reduce the risk of injection damage, which had been a major problem associated with turbine engines. It also had four-place cockpits for two pilots, navigator, and a flight engineer (Nolan 2010). Unlike the features of the aircrafts of the time, the first Comet had a clean low-drag design, which included the swept-wing leading edge, four-wheel bogies, and integral wing fuel tanks. The original De Havilland Comet measured almost the same length as the later Boeing 737-100. However, it carried fewer people in a spacious environment than the Boeing 737-100 (Birtles 1990, p.11). The British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC) installed 36 reclining ‘slumber seats’ with center measuring about 45-inches allowing for a greater leg space both behind and in front. Air France, on the other hand, was fitted with 11 rows of seats plus four seats installed on its comets. The plane also had tables where passengers can have the feeling of enjoyment and comfort. Amenities included a large galley capable of serving hot and cold cuisines and drinks, according to Ron and Patterson (2010, p.19). It also had toilets for both men and women. Because of the safety concerns, the airplane had an emergency section, which included several life rafts kept in the wings, just next to the engines. However, after encountering problems while, on flight, several improvements have been made to ensure that such accidents do not occur

International HRM Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

International HRM - Case Study Example Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world. (Website: http://www.globalization101.org/What_is_Globalization.html Globalization makes use of modern technological advancements and also focuses on the quick transfer of technology, to keep with the changing world. Therefore, Globalization is a phenomenon that charges towards progress and engulfs the whole world, in this process. The development in technology has led to the process of Cloning and other artificial forms of life. Today, we have hybrid varieties of fruits and vegetables being imported from various parts of the world; which truly symbolises globalization. The widespread Globalization has led to the free movement and transfer of goods, capital, technology and people, from one hemisphere to the other. Therefore, there is an influx of numerous commodities across the globe. BACKGROUND INFORMATION International Human Resources Management has gained immense importance today, thanks to the development of foreign policies, foreign relations and globalisation. Foreign Trade has received great impetus due to these factors and companies looking towards expanding their organisations are employing norms and policies to facilitate proper monitoring and maintenance of their employees. Due to growth in commerce and management, strategy planning and execution has become an integral part of organisation. Due to this, International Human Resources Management has come to the forefront. International Human Resources Management seeks to lay down common rules, solutions to problems and personnel management systems to help this new phase of global expansion transform into a success story and to help organisations adapt and procure better results. Working in a country that one is not familiar with, is a great challenge in itself. More so, when it involves the establishment of a branch office of your company or deals with the successful initiation of an extension of your company, in a scenario completely different from the one you are familiar with. Heading these operations that delve into international horizons and expansion plans of your company build up more responsibility that needs to be fulfilled, on your part. Therefore, a great amount of thought-processing and execution must go down into such plans, before embarking on a conclusion. Appar8tus is a US-owned company that has been producing medical tools used in surgery since 1972 and has

Change into a blog Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Change into a blog - Essay Example The findings are based on the research â€Å"at the USC Keck School of Medicine and University College London.† 55 healthy individuals were compared with 32 GERD patients. The result is GERD patients have more problems in voice frequency and amplitude. Here is the extract from the research report: â€Å"Sixteen of the GERD patients underwent surgery to treat the condition, and those people experienced improvements in voice quality---including those patients who didnt complain of voice problems prior to surgery. Poor voice quality could be among the reasons why people with GERD score lower on quality of life measures.† But the reader should be aware of one important factor related to any scientific research and its limitations. The present research findings are not the final verdict on the subject of â€Å"heartburn or gastrointestinal reflux disease.† Moreover, the present research is based on the representative sample of 55 healthy individuals and 32 GERD patients. This is just a small fraction of millions of patients suffering from this disease all over the world. Moreover, no one knows the exact causes for this condition. Some of the causes could be use of alcohol, cigarettes, slouching, medications, diet like eating large meals, eating just before bedtime, diabetes, rapid weight gain and so

Gender as a Structure of Social Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Gender as a Structure of Social Practice - Essay Example Hegemony refers to the subordination of one group by another by mere implication that the other is greater. Hegemonic masculinity is exemplified in patriarchal systems where government is controlled by men. Narrowing down to hegemony among groups of men brings up the concept of subordination. The best example of subordinated masculinity is gay masculinity. Homosexual men in society are subordinate to heterosexual men who dominate society (Connell, p. 78). Complicity refers to the quiet acceptance by men of hegemonic structures because they benefit them at the expense of women. Marginalization brings into play class and race as factors that affect the masculinity of an individual. For example, black masculinity in the United States of America is marginalized by white hegemonic masculinity that holds economic power. Black men become associated with poverty, crime, violence, prison and other negative traits (Connell, p.79). Quentin Tarantino’s crime movie Pulp Fiction, considered a classic study of society’s underworld, contains outstanding examples of how society constructs masculinity. All the leading characters are male. The movie has been said to glorify violence among men; all the men in the movie are either career criminals or commit a crime at some point. The men are not above killing other men to achieve their goals, and do not hesitate to physically and emotionally abuse women. To illustrate the workings of Connell’s theory of masculinity, the focus is on the movie’s crime boss, Marcellus Wallace. Marcellus, a black character, is the biggest crime boss in the area. From the onset, he illustrates marginalization masculinity; a black man in oppressed America can only rise to immense wealth and power through crime. It is implied that Marcellus has risen to the top by being ruthless, cold and calculating. He also has a beautiful white trophy wife, played by Uma Thurman. His wealth qualifies him to marry a white woman, representing marginalization masculinity as manifested in the fantasy of the black man as a sexual predator of white women. Black men such as Marcellus actualize the worst fears of the white men in the hegemonic repressive system; taking their women. The ideology here is that a black man has to be extremely wealthy and successful to qualify to marry a white woman as a way of breaking society’s restrictions. Marcellus as boss of the underworld deals in different criminal operations such as drug rings, extortion, prostitution and gambling dens. He represents complicity to hegemonic masculinity as he has adapted the system to his benefit. The businesses he conducts involve prostitution, a form of exploitation of desperate women. He uses these women to enrich himself. He further illustrates hegemonic masculinity by controlling his wife’s every move and treating her like personal property. She has round-the-clock bodyguards under the guise of protection; in reality, he guards her jealou sly and monitors her every move. His paranoid actions seem justified however, when one of his henchmen succeeds in seducing his wife. To men like Marcellus, women are one more thing to be owned and used. Marcellus also treats his henchmen and underlings as disposable, illustrating further compliance to the hegemonic system. He does not hesitate to order assassinations of those who displease him. When a boxer, who was supposed to throw a match, played by Bruce Willis, ends up killing the

Assignments Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Assignments - Assignment Example Therefore, involves fallacy of equivocation that encourages equality of parties. From the two argument presented by the pair, Zhou is self-centred as he tries to evade paying taxes by opposing government tax policy despite being wealthy enough to pay the taxes that can be distributed indirectly to help those who are poor to ensure equal distribution of wealth . However, despite existence of tax policy, there exist get-outs where wealth people go free without paying taxes hence measures such as follow up should be implemented to ensure everyone pays tax to facilitate the fallacy of equivocation. Third passage in the pair (Crittenden and Mirza) argument involves why American public school should shape up? Therefore, involves fallacy of slippery slope that is contradicted by the evidences provided by Mirza by providing an incidence of Continents such as Europe and Asia by displaying good student performance compared to students in America. Additionally, this can be evidenced by the history of industrialization where Europe became industrialized before

Computer Forensics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Computer Forensics - Research Paper Example Now this is the point where a forensic toxicologist comes onto the scene. â€Å"According to the American Board of Forensic Toxicology (ABFT), Forensic toxicology is interdisciplinary field of study dealing with the effects and reactions of various toxicants and chemicals on the human body† (Bell, 2008). As the name suggests, a forensic scientist works very closely with legal experts and at most of the occasions the forensic scientist himself in a situation where his opinions form the basis of legal process. More than 21 million compounds fit the definition of intoxicant and have the capability to cause damage to the human body (Wecht & Rago, 2006). The history of this field goes back to the earliest times when human formed societies and learned about the use of various chemicals. It was in the 19th century when scientists and chemical experts gained insights about the use of chemicals and in the next century, the world witnessed cases concerned with deaths caused by intoxication more than in the previous recorded history. â€Å"Mary Ann cotton, Belle Sorrenson, Gunness Nannie Doss, Doctor Thomas Neill Cream, John Otto Hoch, Graham Frederick Young and Donald Harvey† (Hayes, 2001) are most of the most famous criminals who took unjust advantage of their knowledge of toxicants by killing people (Bell, 2008). Before the legal experts could catch their crime, they had killed many of their targets. This asked the investigators to understand the dynamics of toxicology and apply it to th e field of forensics. The applications of this field are in three major sub fields that are â€Å"postmortem forensic toxicology, human performance toxicology, and forensic drug testing† (Casarett & Doull, 1975). There are various sources for forensic testing of toxicants in human body. Testing with blood, citreous humor, urine, bile, liver, hair sample, saliva, and others are the most commonly used sources (Hayes,

Celebrities as Role Models Essay Example for Free

Celebrities as Role Models Essay The Supreme Court ruled against a former high school student Monday in the Bong Hits 4 Jesus banner case a split decision that limits students free speech rights. Joseph Frederick was 18 when he unveiled the 14-foot paper sign on a public sidewalk outside his Juneau, Alaska, high school in 2002. Principal Deborah Morse confiscated it and suspended Frederick. He sued, taking his case all the way to the nations highest court. The justices ruled that Fredericks free speech rights were not violated by his suspension over what the majoritys written opinion called a sophomoric banner. It was reasonable for (the principal) to conclude that the banner promoted illegal drug use and that failing to act would send a powerful message to the students in her charge, Chief Justice John Roberts wrote for the courts 6-3 majority. Breyer noted separately he would give Morse qualified immunity from the lawsuit, but did not sign onto the majoritys broader free speech limits on students. Roberts added that while the court has limited student free speech rights in the past, young people do not give up all their First Amendment rights when they enter a school. Roberts was supported by Justices Antonin Scalia, Anthony Kennedy, Clarence Thomas, Stephen Breyer, and Samuel Alito. Breyer noted separately he would give Morse qualified immunity from the lawsuit, but did not sign onto the majoritys broader free speech limits on students. In dissent, Justice John Paul Stevens said, This case began with a silly nonsensical banner, (and) ends with the court inventing out of whole cloth a special First Amendment rule permitting the censorship of any student speech that mentions drugs, so long as someone could perceive that speech to contain a latent pro-drug message. He was backed by Justices David Souter and Ruth Bader Ginsburg. At issue was the discretion schools should be allowed to limit messages that appear to advocate illegal drug use. Bong, as noted in the appeal filed with the justices, is a slang term for drug paraphernalia. The incident occurred in January 2002 just outside school grounds when the Olympic torch relay was moving through the Alaska capital on its way to the Salt Lake City, Utah, Winter Games. Though he was standing on a public sidewalk, the school argued Frederick was part of a school-sanctioned event, because students were let out of classes and accompanied by their teachers. Morse ordered the senior to take down the sign, but he refused. That led to a 10-day suspension for violating a school policy on promoting illegal drug use. Frederick filed suit, saying his First Amendment rights were infringed. A federal appeals court in San Francisco agreed, concluding the school could not show Frederick had disrupted the schools educational mission by showing a banner off campus. Former independent counsel Kenneth Starr argued for the principal that a school must be able to fashion its educational mission without undue hindsight from the courts. http://articles.cnn.com/2007-06-25/justice/free.speech_1_principal-deborah-morse-banner-case-school-policy/2?_s=PM:LAW http://www.aclu.org/free-speech/aclu-slams-supreme-court-decision-student-free-speech-case WASHINGTON The American Civil Liberties Union today criticized the Supreme Courts 5-4 ruling in Morse v. Frederick, which held that Alaska public school officials did not violate a students free speech rights by punishing him for displaying a banner during a public event. We are disappointed by the Supreme Courts ruling, which allows the censorship of student speech without any evidence that school activities were disrupted, said Douglas K. Mertz, an ACLU cooperating attorney who argued the case before the Supreme Court. The case arose in 2002 when Joseph Frederick, then a student at Juneau-Douglas High School in Juneau, Alaska, was suspended for 10 days for holding up a humorous sign that the principal interpreted as a pro-drug message. As the ACLU and Mertz noted, the sign caused no disruption, was displayed at the Olympic Torch Relay a public event on public streets and Frederick had not yet arrived at school for the day. The Courts ruling imposes new restrictions on student speech rights and creates a drug exception to the First Amendment, said Steven R. Shapiro, ACLU National Legal Director. The decision purports to be narrow, and the Court rejected the most sweeping arguments for school censorship. But because the decision is based on the Courts view about the value of speech concerning drugs, it is difficult to know what its impact will be in other cases involving unpopular speech. The Court cannot have it both ways, Shapiro added. Either this speech had nothing to do with drugs, which is what Joe Frederick claimed all along, or it was suppressed because school officials disagreed with the viewpoint it expressed on an issue that is very much the subject of debate in Alaska and around the country. Frederick said that the phrase on the banner, Bong Hits 4 Jesus, was never meant to have any substantive meaning. It was certainly not intended as a drug or religious message. I conveyed this to the principal by explaining it was intended to be funny, subjectively interpreted by the reader and most importantly an exercise of my inalienable right to free speech. The ACLU noted that the ruling is limited to rights under federal law rather than Alaska state law, which is more protective of personal liberties. The fight to defend free speech will go on, both in this case and in others, Mertz said. We are grateful for the many Alaskans and Americans who rallied to defend the First Amendment and promise our continued support for civil liberties. The case attracted support from more than a dozen groups across the ideological spectrum, from the conservative American Center for Law and Justice, Christian Legal Society and Rutherford Institute to the Student Press Law Center, Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund, Drug Policy Alliance and National Coalition Against Censorship. More information on the case is online at: www.aclu.org/frederick The decision is online at: www.scotusblog.com/movabletype/archives/06-278_All.pdf In addition to Mertz and Shapiro, attorneys for Frederick are Catherine Crump and Jonathan Miller of the national ACLU and Jason Brandeis, Legal Director of the ACLU of Alaska. http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/06-278.ZS.html At a school-sanctioned and school-supervised event, petitioner Morse, the high school principal, saw students unfurl a banner stating â€Å"BONG HiTS 4 JESUS,† which she regarded as promoting illegal drug use. Consistent with established school policy prohibiting such messages at school events, Morse directed the students to take down the banner. When one of the students who had brought the banner to the event—respondent Frederick—refused, Morse confiscated the banner and later suspended him. The school superintendent upheld the suspension, explaining, inter alia, that Frederick was disciplined because his banner appeared to advocate illegal drug use in violation of school policy. Petitioner school board also upheld the suspension. Frederick filed suit under 42 U. S. C.  §1983, alleging that the school board and Morse had violated his First Amendment rights. The District Court granted petitioners summary judgment, ruling that they were entitled to qualified immunity and that they had not infringed Frederick’s speech rights. The Ninth Circuit reversed. Accepting that Frederick acted during a school-authorized activity and that the banner expressed a positive sentiment about marijuana use, the court nonetheless found a First Amendment violation because the school punished Frederick without demonstrating that his speech threatened substantial disruption. It also concluded that Morse was not entitled to qualified immunity because Frederick’s right to display the banner was so clearly established that a reasonable principal in Morse’s position would have understood that her actions were unconstitutional. Held: Because schools may take steps to safeguard those entrusted to their care from speech that can reasonably be regarded as encouraging illegal drug use, the school officials in this case did not violate the First Amendment by confiscating the pro-drug banner and suspending Frederick. Pp. 5–15. (a) Frederick’s argument that this is not a school speech case is rejected. The event in question occurred during normal school hours and was sanctioned by Morse as an approved social event at which the district’s student-conduct rules expressly applied. Teachers and administrators were among the students and were charged with supervising them. Frederick stood among other students across the street from the school and directed his banner toward the school, making it plainly visible to most students. Under these circumstances, Frederick cannot claim he was not at school. Pp. 5–6. (b) The Court agrees with Morse that those who viewed the banner would interpret it as advocating or promoting illegal drug use, in violation of school policy. At least two interpretations of the banner’s words—that they constitute an imperative encouraging viewers to smoke marijuana or, alternatively, that they celebrate drug use—demonstrate that the sign promoted such use. This pro-drug interpretation gains further plausibility from the paucity of alternative meanings the banner might bear. Pp. 6–8. (c) A principal may, consistent with the First Amendment , restrict student speech at a school event, when that speech is reasonably viewed as promoting illegal drug use. In Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School Dist., 393 U. S. 503 , the Court declared, in holding that a policy prohibiting high school students from wearing antiwar armbands violated the First Amendment , id., at 504, that student expression may not be suppressed unless school officials reasonably conclude that it will â€Å"materially and substantially disrupt the work and discipline of the school,† id., at 513. The Court in Bethel School Dist. No. 403 v. Fraser, 478 U. S. 675 , however, upheld the suspension of a student who delivered a high school assembly speech employing â€Å"an elaborate, graphic, and explicit sexual metaphor,† id., at 678. Analyzing the case under Tinker, the lower courts had found no disruption, and therefore no basis for discipline. 478 U. S., at 679–680. This Court reversed, holding that the school was â€Å"within its permissible authority in imposing sanctions †¦ in response to [the student’s] offensively lewd and indecent speech.† Id., at 685. Two basic principles may be distilled from Fraser. First, it demonstrates that â€Å"the constitutional rights of students in public school are not automatically coextensive with the rights of adults in other settings.† Id., at 682. Had Fraser delivered the same speech in a public forum outside the school context, he would have been protected. See, id., at 682–683. In school, however, his First Amendment rights were circumscribed â€Å"in light of the special characteristics of the school environment.† Tinker, supra, at 506. Second, Fraser established that Tinker’s mode of analysis is not absolute, since the Fraser Court did not conduct the â€Å"substantial disruption† analysis. Subsequently, the Court has held in the Fourth Amendment context that â€Å"while children assuredly do not ‘shed their constitutional rights †¦ at the schoolhouse gate,’ †¦ the nature of those rights is what is appropriate for children in school,† Vernonia School Dist. 47J v. Acton, 515 U. S. 646 , and has recognized that deterring drug use by schoolchildren is an â€Å"important—indeed, perhaps compelling† interest, id., at 661. Drug abuse by the Nation’s youth is a serious problem. For example, Congress has declared that part of a school’s job is educating students about the dangers of drug abuse, see, e.g., the Safe and Drug-Free Schools and Communities Act of 1994, and petitioners and many other schools have adopted policies aimed at implementing this message. Student speech celebrating illegal drug use at a school event, in the presence of school administrators and teachers, poses a particular challenge for school officials working to protect those entrusted to their care. The â€Å"special characteristics of the school environment,† Tinker, 393 U. S., at 506, and the governmental interest in stopping student drug abuse allow schools to restrict student expression that they reasonably regard as promoting such abuse. Id., at 508, 509, distinguished. Pp. 8–15. http://web.law.duke.edu/publiclaw/supremecourtonline/certgrants/2006/morvfre.html Frederick sued Morse, the principal of his high school, under 42 U.S.C.  § 1983, alleging that his First Amendment rights had been violated when Morse suspended him for ten days after he unfurled a banner with the message Bong hits 4 Jesus during a televised parade. The parade took place during the school day; students had been released from school to watch the parade; faculty were present and loosely supervising the event. Frederick was standing across the street from the school when he displayed the banner. Frederick unsuccessfully appealed his suspension administratively before filing his civil rights claim in district court. The district court ruled in favor of the principal. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed, holding that the case was governed by Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, in which the Supreme Court held that school authorities may only suppress the speech of students at school if the authorities can reasonably predict substantial disruption of or material interference with school activities as a result of the speech. Noting that Morse could not have been concerned about the disruption of educational activities resulting from Fredericks speech, the Ninth Circuit reasoned that Morse could not punish Fredericks non-disruptive, off-campus speech, even though he was a student, the speech took place during a school-authorized activity, and the speech promoted a social message contrary to the one favored by the school. Finally, the Ninth Circuit held that Morse was not entitled to qualified immunity from money damages, because her conduct violated Fredericks constitutional rights, the right was clearly established under the law, and it would be clear to a reasonable principal that her conduct was unlawful in the situation [she] confronted.

Romeo and Juliet Essay Example for Free

Romeo and Juliet Essay The Montague’s and the Capulets are also holding a grudge for one another for very pointless reason. Now a day’s people all around the world hold grudges on people for very minor things. This is why Shakespeare is still relevant to today. Shakespeares idea on love in Romeo and Juliet relates a lot to today’s point of view on love. Romeo and Juliet know their families hate each other and disobey they parents just to see one another. This also relates to the 2002 movie ‘Bend it like Beckham’. Jesminder disobeys her parents and continues to do what she loves which is to play soccer. This is similar to Romeo and Juliet because the star-crossed lovers and Jesminder continue to disobey their parents. These just prove that Shakespeares plays are still relevant to today because Bend it like Beckham is a movie of this time period meaning Shakespeares play Romeo and Juliet influenced it. Loyalty is an important theme in Romeo and Juliet. Loyalty is displayed when Mercutio (Romeo’s best friend) to a blow for Romeo. Loyalty is still a very important aspect to today, as friends and family would do anything to keep one another alive. A great example of loyalty is John Marsden’s novel ‘Tomorrow When the War Began’. In the part where Lee was shot in the leg, Robyn could’ve left Lee to die and save her own life instead she helped lee. Robyn put her life on the line to save a friend. This is a great example of loyalty as it targets the young children of this generation. Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet is still relevant to today. To conclude, Shakespeares plays are still relevant today because they deal with issues and themes that are still relevant today. Shakespeare has used Pointless fights and grudges, Love and loyalty as main points in his play Romeo and Juliet and all these ideas transcends across time.

Increasing Cervical Screening for BME Women in the UK

Increasing Cervical Screening for BME Women in the UK It was not until 1988 that the NHS cervical screening programme began; since then it has proved to be a successful scheme in the detection and prevention of cervical cancer saving 4500 lives per year (NHS Cervical Screening Programme 2008, Care Commission 2008). Despite the effectiveness of smear tests, evidence shows that only 80% of women with cervical cancer would have had cervical screening (Bloomfield 2007 cited in Gannon and Dowling 2008). In 2007 2,828 new cases of cervical cancer were diagnosed in the UK, and worldwide there are 493,000 cases annually (Cancer research UK 2010a, Ashford and Collymore 2005). With the prevalence of cervical cancer increasing there are concerns with the uptake of cervical screening in the UK particularly among ethnic minority of women. Evidence by Moser et al (2009) has shown there is a low uptake of cervical screening in ethnic groups of women; British women were 1.35 to 3.42 times more likely to have a cervical smear in comparison with women from an ethnic minority. Although other factors such as age and socioeconomic as demonstrated in Moser et al (2009) have an impact on the uptake of cervical screening, ethnicity seems to be a significant influence. Cervical screening is offered to women aged 25-64 years old; for women aged 25-49 screening is at 3 year intervals and for women aged 50-64 it is every 5 years (DOH 2006). Although uptake of cervical screening is lower overall in ethnic minority groups, there are differences in the uptake between ethnic groups (Luke at al 1996, Webb et al 2004). The aim of this literature review is to discover how the uptake of cervical screening can be increased amongst ethnic minority women in the UK. In doing so the literature review sets out to identify ethnic womens beliefs and attitudes towards cervical screening, identify and evaluate ethnic womens barriers to cervical screening and to evaluate the interventions used to increase the uptake of cervical screening. A literature search was conducted using the search terms cervical smears, ethnic minorities, cancer , screening , barriers, knowledge , women , prevention, interventions and UK. As individual search terms did not provide a fruitful result of papers that were relevant, these search terms were combined as follows: cervical smears + women attitudes +UK cervical cancer prevention and screening +ethnic groups, cervical screening + interventions UK, cervical cancer + ethnic minorities UK, cervical screening + barriers UK cervical screening knowledge + ethnic minorities cervical smears + ethnic minorities The combined search terms were used in the search strategies of CINAHL, MEDLINE-via PubMed, BNI, Google Scholar and PsycArticles (see Appendix 1) A total of 11 studies (Appendix 2) were found with the inclusion criteria of primary research and research published after 1990. It was important that the literature reviewed old research as it was only in 1988 that national cervical screening was introduced and the issue of cervical screening in ethnic minorities has been on-going. Hence this enabled a comparison of how ethnic minority views on cervical screening have changed over time. The exclusion criteria were primary research published outside the UK. This was due to the unfamiliarity with methods of cervical screening outside the UK. The use of electronic searching did not yield as many research as hoped for, furthermore it was very hard to find research on interventions that were tested on ethnic minority groups of women. Cervical cancer is the second most common cancer in women under age 35 in the UK (Bedford, 2009). As the name suggests cervical cancer is cancer of the cervix. The cervix (neck of the womb) is part of the female reproductive system and connects the uterus to the vagina. The cervix has many functions: during menstruation it allows the passage of blood flow and during childbirth it dilates for the baby to pass through the uterus and into the vagina (Cancer Research UK 2010b). The cells of the cervix can develop to pre-cancerous changes known as dysplasia. Dysplasia (which is abnormal cells on the cervix) can be categorised using cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) classification (see Appendix 2). For this reason it is important that women have regular smears as early detection of cervical abnormalities can initiate treatment before cancer develops (Patient UK 2010). There are two types of cervical cancers: squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common form of cervical cancer and accounts for 80- 90% of cervical cancers. Squamous cell carcinoma invades the squamous epithelium of the ectocervix (Dunleavey 2009). The other form of cervical cancer is adenocarcinoma, although less common as it accounts for only 10% in all cases it is considered to be the more severe than squamous cell carcinoma. (Dunleavy 2009, What is cervical cancer? 2011). Moreover the cervical smear is not designed to detect adenocarcinoma, however is mainly intended at detecting the early changes of squamous cell carcinoma (Poulsen 2005).As cervical cancer progresses slowly it may be asymptomatic, however as it advances the symptoms such as irregular bleeding, bleeding or pain after sexual intercourse and increased discharge may be a sign of cervical cancer Smeltzer et al (2009). According to Shiffman et al (1993) there is strong evidence to suggest that Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) causes cervical cancer, with types 16 and 18 deemed to be strongly associated with cervical cancer. Other risk factors include, smoking, number of sexual partners, age of first intercourse and use of oral contraceptives (Cancer Research UK 2009b). Internal Barriers From the literature it is apparent that internal barriers such as , beliefs, attitudes, embarrassment, and lack of knowledge have an influence on the uptake of cervical screening in ethnic minorities (Doyle 1991, Naish et al 1994, Box 1998, Thomas et al 2005, Abdullahi 2009). There seems to be a consensus about beliefs and attitudes of ethnic minority women and cervical screening. Naish et al (1994) investigated factors that deter women from attending there GP for cervical screening. A focus group of women from Turkish, Kurdish, Bengali, Chinese, Vietnamese, Punjabi and Urdu speaking women was conducted. It was found that most of the women shared fatalistic beliefs about cervical cancer. It was noted that if you have it, then that is it and it would be better if were detected early (Naish et al 1994, p.1127). Similarly a more recent study by Abdullahi et al (2009) also found Somali women had fatalistic beliefs about cervical cancer; however these beliefs stemmed from a religious view rather than a cultural view as described in Naish et al (1994). Using a purposive sample, Abdullahi et al (2009) recruited Somali women from Camden. Somali women commonly believed that cervical cancer was the will of God. This belief is further supported by participants in Box (1998) and Thomas et al (2005) study. Box (1998) aimed to seek the views and experiences of black and minority ethnic (BME) women on smear test screening for cervical cancer. The findings showed attitudes and beliefs about cervical cancer were linked with promiscuity and seen as a punishment from God. A woman in Boxs study (1998, p.7 ) stated cancer , yes it happens here, not with us we stay with our men. Therefore for some ethnic minority women there is a chance of being culturally and religiously stigmatised as a result of the belief that cervical screening is only appropriate for those who are promiscuous. For most ethnic minorities with strong religious and cultural backgrounds there is a high importance attached to how women should behave when not married. The commitment to religion in ethnic minorities especially those from a Muslim and Christian background means for most women they have to maintain their virginity until married otherwise may be exposed to social consequences (Shripinda 2010). For example in Moroccan and Turkish groups women found to have lost their virginity can be killed in what is known as honour killing (Shripinda 2010). This view is still strongly upheld. Young Pakistani, Arabic and Greek orthodox females expressed resilient views on keeping the virginal state when entering marriage (Thomas et al 2005). Thomas et als (2005) study revealed young Pakistani women suggested they would go for a cervical screening only if the screener was not from their cultural background as they feared of being found out. Likewise in Boxs study (1998), sexually active unmarried wom en were afraid their doctor or receptionist could not be trusted as to the reason why they attended the GP. The unanimity on beliefs and attitudes towards cervical cancer is not shared across all types of ethnic groups of women. Interestingly the views of African women beliefs about cervical cancer are derived from superstition (Thomas et al, 2005). The African women in Thomas et als study (2005) believed cervical cancer was a taboo and that to mention cancer might cause the cancer to manifest. Furthermore cervical cancer was seen as a taboo more than other types of cancers. The evidence above provides a strong link between ethnic minorities cultural and religious beliefs as a barrier in cervical screening. Another concern over cervical screening was the issue of embarrassment. The cervical smear test is invasive and for most ethnic women the procedure can be physically and psychologically uncomfortable (Box 1998, Abdullahi et al 2009). The issue of embarrassment is particularly important to Somali women. For them the issue of embarrassment arises from female gender mutilation (FGM). WHO (2010) explains FGM as the total or partial removal of the external female genitalia. FGM in most cultures is as result of both cultural, religious and refers to back to the ideology of maintaining premarital virginity. For some Somali women there is the anticipation of embarrassment as result of the reaction from the doctor or nurse taking the samples (Abdullahi et al 2009). Consequently Abdullahi et al (2009) brings an understanding as to how FGM acts as a deterrence for Somali women in cervical screening. These studies (Naish et al 1994, Box 1998, Thomas et al 2005, Abdullahi 2009) have the use of focus groups in common. Though this suggests the appropriate use of focus groups in the study, it has its limitations. Parahoo (2006) states the disadvantage of focus groups is that dominant personalities can control the discussions. This was evident in Naish et al (1994), where it was noted that both Turkish and Kurdish women interacted spontaneously and informally compared to the other ethnic groups of women. This can affect the credibility of the study as the views of ethnic women perhaps only reflected those from Turkish and Kurdish backgrounds and not everyone else. Furthermore focus groups are not effective compared with in-depth interview in dealing with sensitive topics. For example in Abdullahis study (2009) the issue of promiscuity was discussed with discomfort. This presents one of the prime issues within focus groups, where participants may feel less inclined to discuss sensitive issues out of fear of scrutiny and criticism from others within the group. This is reinforced by Groups Plus (2003) who states that sensitive topics are easily discussed if participants in the group all share the same problem. The lack of knowledge of cervical screening is often prevalent in ethnic minority groups. Box (1998) identifies that there were misconceptions about the purpose of screening. Similarly Abdullahi et al (2009) found that Somali women failed to recognise the importance of cervical screening. This supports a previous study by Doyle (1991) which identified ethnic minorities unawareness of both the importance and existence of cervical screening. Somali women disregarded cervical screening because there was no cervical screening in Somalia; the concept of preventative health was also unfamiliar. The concept of preventative health is unaccustomed in some cultures. Doyle (1991) suggests in the Asian communities the reliance on folk medicines meant screening was outside the traditional views of healing. The disregard towards preventative health is perhaps underpinned by religious beliefs. Thomas et al (2005) found that many ethnic groups felt it was important to turn to religion as a form of c oping emotionally. There was a consensus amongst the groups that if things are left with God he resolves the problem. Despite the lack of knowledge of cervical screening amongst ethnic groups, other groups are more knowledgeable. Guajarati women in Boxs study (1998) were the only ones aware that cervical screening is able to detect pre-cancerous cells. Thomas et al (2005) found African groups were more able to identify cervical cancer as a commonly occurring cancer within their community. However age has an influential role on the amount knowledge that is embedded. Younger African-Caribbean participants had the least knowledge about cancer as there was a perception cancer affected older people (Thomas et al 2005). It appears that Thomas et als study (2005) has a methodological weakness. In their study they aimed to describe factors that act as barriers to effective uptake of breast and cervical screening. However the sample may not be representative of the target population as the sample consisted of men. Since men do not partake in breast and cervical screening, their inclusion may have distorted the findings, therefore reduces the transferability and credibility of the study. Regardless of this, Thomas et als (2005) study shows the significance in the link between age and lack of knowledge in cervical cancer. The lack of knowledge amongst ethnic minorities perhaps was as a result of language difficulties. If they were able to communicate and comprehend information they received then this could enhance their understanding and knowledge of cervical screening. The majority of ethnic women declared that translated information in their languages was often inadequate and difficult to make sense of (Naish et al 1994, Abdullahi 2009, Thomas et al 2005, Box 1998). The translated information was not only seen as a problem, but for some ethnic minority women who were illiterate translated information was still perplexing. As a result there was a preference for being told about the cervical test in their own languages rather than reading a translated script (Box 1998). External Barriers One major external barrier that was very frequently much expressed was the gender of the GP or screener. There were conceptions that if it was male practitioners that did the screening then women are less likely to uptake cervical screening. Some women in Boxs study (1998) felt that their bodies should only be seen by their husbands and it were adamant that the smear taker should be a female. Similarly Somali women, felt that as Muslim, women having a male practitioner taking the smears is inappropriate. Abdullahi et als (2009) study is significant in identifying and providing solutions to the barriers that discourages Somali women from up taking up cervical screening. This study is commended well on its originality as mentioned by Abdullahi (2009), and this was the only study investigating barriers to cervical screening that was found that focused on the views of Somali women. Conducting a study on Somali women brings new knowledge to this area of research as the Somali community do not lend themselves to research because they are seen to be invisible compared to other Muslim ethnic minorities (Information centre about Asylum and Refugees ( ICAR) 2004).However, Naish et al (1994) found that both Kurdish and Turkish women did not mind male practitioners, as they are used to male doctors in their home countries. Nonetheless it appeared that a female practitioner still had more favour compared to that of a male practitioner. From the evidence the preference for a female doctor is not only due to cultural or religious views but also due to the lack of understanding and insensitivity that male doctors display towards ethnic women having cervical smears. This is particularly demonstrated in Box et als study (1998, p.7) where a women stated the doctor was cross with me when I asked for the forceps (speculum) to be warmed, how would he feel if it was him? However Thomas et al (2005) suggests that this poor relationship between practitioners and patients was due to poor communication skills. In Thomas et als (2005) study BME women identified that the attitudes portrayed by their GP was very discouraging and at times it felt as if their GPs did not want them to be there. Moreover the issue of racism is problematic for ethnic minority women. For example in Box (1998) some of the Asian women were cited as being treated coldly by the smear taker because of their race. Health advocates noticed BME women were treate d less favourably than white women and when smears were taken they were provided with less comfort (Box 1998). Childcare issues also play an influential part in preventing ethnic women in up taking cervical smears. Naish et al (1994) found with many women, having children in the same room was very distracting. This view was also supported by Somali women who indicated the lack of childcare facilities was a barrier in attending cervical screening (Abdullahi et al 2009). There is a link between the perceived lack of sterility of equipment and the uptake of cervical screening. The views expressed by some ethnic women were that the speculum was not hygienic and that this could be a cause of cervical cancer instead of the association with HPV (Box 1998). One woman expressed the following concern; the cancer might be there [in the clinic] you never know they need to cover it with water, wash it all away Ive never seen them do that (Box 1998 , p.g 9). The view is also reiterated in Naish et als (1994) study, where Chinese women were adamant that the use of unsterile equipment could induce infections. This demonstrates how important the lack of knowledge amongst ethnic minorities can affect the uptake of cervical smears. Interventions that increase cervical screening Interventions that increase cervical screening such as health promotion, education, invitations, psychological interventions and media interventions are examined below. Kernohan (1996) investigated the effectiveness of community-based intervention to improve knowledge on the uptake of breast and cervical screening. The sample consisting of 1000 women from different ethnic backgrounds were involved in a health promotion intervention. The study focused on Bradfords main minority ethnic women (South Asian) and was concerned with the impact of health education programmes on the knowledge of cervical screening in South Asian women. Compared to the other ethnic groups South Asian women had the lowest level of knowledge on cervical smears, however their knowledge had considerably improved from 35.8% to 68.7% after the intervention. Kernohan (1996) study is noteworthy for depicting a positive correlation between health promotion and knowledge of cervical screening. However as this study was a pilot study this area of research would require further work in order to provide robust evidence. Furthermore kernohan (1996) did not look at the impact of increased k nowledge on the subsequent rate of uptake. Evidence from Abdullahi et al (2009) and Naish et al (1994) suggest that addressing barriers which deter women from having cervical smears can be used as interventions to increase cervical smear rates. The lack of knowledge of cervical screening is an apparent barrier in most ethnic women and a proposed solution would be to increase the levels of knowledge of cervical screening. Abdullahi et al (2009) suggests that education about the purpose of cervical screening is key to encouraging Somali women to attend for cervical screening. However, suggesting such solutions to overcome barriers to cervical screening without trial may be futile, since without some testing the solutions there remains a gap in understanding the impact of the intervention suggested by Abdullahi et al (2009). More importantly Sabates and Feinstein (2006) investigated the role of education on the uptake of preventative health care, in this case cervical screening. Sabates and Feinstein (2006) suggest that educational effects on the uptake of preventative health results in raising the awareness of and the importance of having a regular health check and therefore the inclination to uptake preventative health checks. The study found that women enrolled in courses or training leading to qualifications had a positive impact on the probability of the uptake of cervical smears. Sabates and Feinsteins (2006) study provides further support to the socio-economic determinants of the uptake of screening. However, the effectiveness of this particular intervention is limited as women within ethnic minorities tend to not achieve the accolades of adult learning as a result of cultural demands. According to YWCA (2011) some black minority ethnic women are missing from the school register and are pulled out of school as a result of family duties to marital commitment. A systematic review conducted by Forbes et al (2009) reviewed interventions targeted at women to encourage the uptake of cervical screening. It concluded that invitation letters and educational materials were the most effective types of interventions. However evidence from Stein et al (2002) suggests that invitation letters were not effective. Stein et al (2006) investigated the effectiveness of three methods of inviting women with a long history of non -attendance to undergo cervical screening. The methods of invitation were a telephone call from a nurse, a letter from a well-known celebrity and letter from the local NHS Cervical Screening Commissioner. A telephone call and a letter from a celebrity were ineffective. A letter from the commissioner resulted in a small increase in the uptake of cervical screening this was not statistically significant. Although Stein et al (2006) findings contradict that of Forbes et al (2009), this does not nullify the results of Forbes et als (2009) study. The findings from Stein et al (2005) highlight one of the limitations of doing a single study. Egger et al (2001) argues a single study often fails to detect a statistically significance between interventions when in fact such difference may exists, therefore are more likely to produce false negative results. Moreover, in the hierarchy of evidence for interventions, systematic reviews are at the top as they are more likely to produce a strong and less-biased synthesis of findings that to show whether the intervention has an effective outcome (Melnyk and Fineout-Overholt 2010) . For this reason Forbes et al (2009) has a more valuable contribution towards knowledge on the interventions that increase the uptake of cervical screening. The NHS cervical screening programme (2011) highlights that encouraging women through reminders such as invitation letters is exceptionally important; this may not be as effective in motivating ethnic minority women to attend cervical screening. Some ethnic minority women are more likely to ignore invitation letters if translation is unavailable ( Naish et al 1994). On the other hand, there is a link between planning when, where and how of making an appointment and the success rate in uptake of cervical screening. This is referred to as implementation intentions the initiation of behaviour is determined if the conditions when, where and how are planned (Bartholomew et al 2011).This was demonstrated by Sheeran and Orbell (2000) who tested the concept of implementation intentions as a method to increase non-attendance in cervical screening. It was found that the participants who produced implementation intentions were much more likely to attend for a cervical smear test compared to th e control group. This demonstrates how empowering women to have more control on the choices in arranging their appointments can significantly encourage the uptake of cervical screening. This supports Abdullahi et al s (2009) study where it was identified that inconvenient appointment times were also considered to be a barrier. Consequently the use of implementation intention as an intervention is noteworthy of encouraging ethnic women to uptake cervical screening. Furthermore, an area of research that would increase existing knowledge is to investigate implementation intentions on ethnic minority women and subsequent uptake of cervical smears, in order to provide strong evidence for such intervention. The media has potentially an important role on the uptake of cervical screening. Howe et al (2002) investigated the impact of a television soap opera on the NHS cervical screening programme. Using a retrospective analysis on information of the NHS cervical screening databases, during the 6 month of the storyline, the number of smears performed in women whose previous smears were compared to women who had smears taken previously that year. The storyline involved a character that missed her regular screening appointments; later she was diagnosed with cervical cancer and 6 weeks later she died. Howe et al (2002) found that there were substantial increases in the number of cervical smears- from 65 714 in 2001, to 79,712 in 2002, 19 weeks after the storyline. This demonstrates a significant link between the effects of media in motivating women to take up cervical screening. In support is the impact of a celebrity profile on uptake of cervical screening. The media coverage of Jade Goody fr om diagnosis of cervical cancer till death has been an influential motive for some women to uptake cervical screening. Parkers (2010) reports that, since the media coverage of Jade Goodys case, figures from NHS Rotherham showed an 80% improvement rate in the uptake of cervical screening. Discussion From reviewing the literature it is apparent that increasing the uptake of cervical screening amongst ethnic minority women poses a challenging problem. Ethnic minority women are faced with internal and external barriers that play an important role on their non- attendance for cervical screening. It appears the internal and external barriers are interrelated. For instance the issue of embarrassment may arise as a result of being screened by a male practitioner, as well as FGM particularly in the case of Somali women as stated earlier. Moreover the culturally sensitive issues such as the loss of virginity still pays a price tag in many cultures and the stigmatisation attached towards it means some young ethnic minority women might feel reluctant to take up cervical smears. Needless to say the extent to which a barrier act as a deterrent to the uptake of cervical screening is very much culturally dependent. Women from African cultures see cervical cancer as a taboo, where as in Asian cultures cervical cancer is perceived as a disease for those who are promiscuous. Additionally, the cultural attitudes and beliefs may be a stronger barrier than child care issues for some ethnic minority women, whilst the sterility of equipment may have a stronger influence than the issue of embarrassment. The lack of knowledge was the most common barrier that was revealed and it appears this has not changed over the years amongst ethnic minority groups ( Box 1998, Thomas et al 2005 , Abdullahi et al 2009). From evaluating the interventions, it remains substantial that socioeconomic factors (lack of knowledge and education) are predictors in determining ethnic minority women attendance for cervical screening. For this reason, it would be beneficial for communities where ethnic minorities are prevalent to have health promotion projects that produce the awareness of cervical screening (kernohan 1996). There was sufficient evidence to suggest language difficulties as an important factor in deterring ethnic minority women from the uptake of cervical screening. Though research has not tested the effect of bilingual services as an intervention to increase cervical screening, an area in practice that needs room for improvement is the use bilingual services and bilingual interpreters in the cervical screening recall system. Forbes et al (2009) research supports the use of invitation letters as an intervention to improve the uptake of cervical screening and currently still remains the most popular intervention used. Therefore a recommendation for practice would be for invitation letters to be printed in the languages of ethnic minorities. What was interesting and surprising, was the issue of racism as a barrier to the uptake of cervical screening. The ethnic minority often experience health inequalities as a result of racism, karlsen (2007) reports racism can lead to differences in treatment and access to health promoting resources for the ethnic minority. This was reflected in Box (1998) where Asian women expressed their concerns of being treated coldly and treated indecently as a result of their race. This area highlights the need for a change within the health services offered to ethnicity minorities in the UK. More importantly a contribution to research would be to tackle racism as an intervention to encourage ethnic minority women in the uptake of cervical screening (Szczepura 2005). Furthermore training needs to be put in place for health professionals to understand and embrace the forms of cultural and religious beliefs amongst ethnic minorities in order to reduce prejudice and discriminatory practices. This would be particularly important to women from ethnic minorities where FGM is seen as a custom practice. Denniston et al (2001) states FGM continues to take place in many cultures around the world; health practitioners and screeners need to be taught to take a sensitive and a considerable approach when screening women with FGM. Sheeran and Orbells study (2000) makes a positive contribution towards the issue of improving the uptake of cervical screening in women from ethnic minority groups. The use of implementation intentions seemed to have an effect on women in their attendance for cervical screening. Implementation intentions would be advantageous for some ethnic minority women. Planning when, where and how an appointment would address some of the barriers identified, including the gender of the screener, ensuring that a bilingual interpreter was present, so if needed information given could be clarified. Thomas et al (2005) implies that the planning of an appointment for ethnic minority groups, especially for those with religious festivals is important. Ethnic women given the chance to decide when their appointment should take place would eradicate inconveniences such as being invited for screening during Ramadan. However further research would be necessary to establish the effectiveness as well as the c ost-effectiveness of using implementation intentions amongst ethnic minority women and the uptake of cervical screening. To conclude, this literature review examined how to increase the uptake of cervical screening amongst ethnic minority women in the UK. The evidence discussed in this review has explored the internal barriers and external barriers that deter ethnic women in the uptake of cervical screening. It is hard to change peoples behaviour because of what we believe in and how this has shaped our social norms and values. Therefore to increase the uptake of cervical screening amongst ethnic minority groups remains complex and inconclusive. With the evidence examined in this review, the interventions (health promotion, education, implementation intentions, invitation letters and the media) to improve the attendance and uptake of cervical screening noticeably have an influential impact in encourag